The White-flippered penguin
Eudyptula minor subspecies albosignata
Written by Michael Gillies (Lincoln University)
July 2005
Edited by Michael Hudson, Lincoln University, September 2006
Taxonomy
- Scientific name: Eudyptula minor subspecies albosignata (Finsch, 1874)
- Popular Common names: White-flippered penguin, korora
- Other common names: blue penguin
- Kingdom: Animalia
- Phylum: Chordata
- Class: Aves (the birds)
- Order: Sphenisciformes (the penguins)
- Family: Spheniscidae (the penguins)
- New Zealand Status: native(species is native, subspecies is endemic to Canterbury)
- Taxonomy sources: Marchant & Higgins (1990), Stahel & Gales (1987), Williamson (2002).
Identification
Species Description
Comment: The genus Eudyptula is found throughout Southern Australia and New Zealand. There is debate over whether or not the white-flippered penguin is a sub-species of the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) (Taylor, 2000, Williams 2002). This paper will treat the white-flippered penguin as a subspecies of Eudyptula minor. However, because they are so similar, a great deal of the information used for the white-flippered penguin natural history will be the same as that of the blue penguin
The genus Eudyptula is the smallest of all penguin species (Williamson, 2002). White-flippered penguins (Eudyptula minor subspecies albosignata) stand approximately 30 centimetres tall and weigh approximately 1.5 kilograms (Williamson, 2002). The white-flippered penguin is a sub-species of Eudyptula because of its unique morphological differences (Stahel & Gales, 1987). The white-flippered penguin has white colour markings on both edges of its flippers; as opposed to only one edge as with other Eudyptula penguins (Figure 1). It is also slightly larger than other blue penguins (Stahel & Gales, 1987; Williamson, 2002). Otherwise the white-flippered penguin looks and behaves similar to other blue penguins. The penguin has a stocky build with blue feathers above and white below (Figure 3). Although the male and female penguins look similar, the female is slightly smaller in size (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). Juveniles are similar in appearance to the adult penguins, only smaller (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). Usually in small groups at sea, the white flippered penguins often congregate into larger groups before coming ashore (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). A bark-like call is used to maintain contact on the water. Once on land an inhalation-exhalation braying call is used to communicate. They are generally noisy at night and call out periodically to the sea (Marchant & Higgins, 1990).
Similar species
There are six subspecies of blue penguins. The only noticeable difference between the penguins is the colour of their flippers (Figure 1) and their body weight (Reilly, 1994; Stahel & Gales, 1987; Williams, 2002). Juvenile Eudyptula penguins can be confused with juvenile Spheniscus penguins; especially the rock-hopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) (Marchant & Higgins, 1990).
Geographic Distribution
Full natural and naturalised range
Eudyptula penguins are found on the islands and coastal mainland of Southern Australia and all over New Zealand (Marchant & Higgins, 1990; Reilly, 1994; Stahel & Gales, 1987). In Australia little penguins (Eudyptula minor) are found in Western Australia, the South Coast and New South Wales (Davis & Renner, 2003). However vagrant little penguins have been seen as far North as Meneton bay in Queensland. In New Zealand blue penguins are found all over the country: from Northland to Stewart Island and to the Chatham Islands (Davis & Renner 2003; Marchant & Higgins, 1990).
| Subspecies | Location |
|---|---|
| E. minor subsp. novaehollandia | Australia |
| E. minor subsp. iredaei | Northern New Zealand |
| E. minor subsp. variabilis | Cook Strait |
| E. minor subsp. albosignata | Banks Peninsula and Motuanu Island |
| E. minor subsp. minor | Lower South Island |
| E. minor subsp. chathamensis | Chatham Island |
New Zealand range
The white-flippered penguin is endemic to Canterbury. White-flippered penguin colonies are located on Banks Peninsula and Motuanu Island (Davis & Renner, 2003; Taylor, 2000; Williamson, 2002). However stragglers are often found in the Cook Strait and coastal Otago (Davis & Renner, 2003).
Canterbury range
The white-flippered penguin is found on Banks Peninsula and Motuanu Island (Davis & Renner, 2003; Taylor 2000; Williamson, 2002).The largest mainland population is at Flea Bay which is actively protected by the landowners and the Department of Conservation (Williamson, 2002).
Natural History in Canterbury
Habitats
The white-flippered penguins’ habitat is confined to narrow coastal areas (Williamson, 2002). These coastal strips are surrounded by highly developed urban and pastoral areas (Williamson, 2002). The penguin colonies are often isolated and not easily accessible to the public. These colonies are found on shores, coastal slopes, promontories, bases of cliffs, central flats and plateaus, and sand dunes (Marchant & Higgins, 1990).
Preferred habitats
White-flippered penguins are nocturnal and don’t usually leave the water until dusk (Davis & Renner, 2003). During the day they forage around their nest and will often sleep near their nest after feeding their chicks (Davis & Renner, 2003) They nest in burrows, rock crevices and caves; some nest on the surface around logs, in thick vegetation and even under houses (Gummer, 2003; Williamson, 2002). The burrow is usually a tunnel, with a bowl-like nest at the end with enough room for the penguin to stand up. The nest is lined with grass, twigs or other locally sourced materials (Stahel & Gales, 1987; Williamson, 2002). Their breeding areas have been greatly affected by human induced changes such as introduced predators and the modification and development of the surrounding area (Williamson, 2002). The white-flippered penguin thrives in the sea; their stream lined body is perfectly designed for life under water (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Phenology/Breeding
The white-flippered penguin begins breeding around the age of 3-4 years old (Waas, 1995). They return to their Canterbury breeding grounds between August and September (Williamson, 2002). They generally return to their previous nesting sites and immediately begin refurbishing their nests in preparation of breeding (Williamson, 2002). The breeding season for white-flippered penguins begins in August and runs through to Feburary (table 2). The penguins generally breed with the same partner year after year (Williamson, 2002). The female lays two eggs and although the pair take turns incubating the eggs, the female does the majority; i.e. incubating for 21 hours of the day (Williamson, 2002). White-flippered penguins breed one month later than other blue penguins to the North and South of its range (Williamson, 2002).
| August–October | Adults return from the sea to prepare nests; egg laying begins |
|---|---|
| November–December | Eggs hatch and parents guard their chicks; fledging begins. |
| January–March | Chicks fledge; adults begin their moult; by late march all have gone to sea |
Longevity
The life expectancy for Eudyptula penguins is 6.5-7 years. However there are recordings of Australian Eudyptula penguins living to up 21 years old (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Dispersal
Penguins are often regarded as clumsy when ashore (Williamson, 2002). However, when they are in the water they move with incredible fluidity (Williamson, 2002). With their soft fleshy feet, nodular pads and powerful claws white-flippered penguins are able to get around onshore and climb most surfaces (Williamson, 2002). Penguins are flightless; the wings are now nothing more than vestiges from a distant past of flightedness (Davis, 2001). Instead penguins use these modified wings for propulsion through the water (Watanuki et al., 2006). Complemented by webbed feet for steering and a stream-lined, almost torpedo like, body penguins propel themselves efficiently through the water. This is important because blue penguins may make journeys of up to 1000km from their nesting areas (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Diet
The white-flippered penguin generally eats fish such as anchovies (Engraulis australis) and pilchards (Sardinops sagax) (Taylor, 2000). Blue penguins catch their food by first locating a school of fish and then using one of 4 techniques to catch the fish.
These techniques are:
- while circling the school of fish, it snatches at breakaway fish
- after circling the fish, it swims through the bunched school, snatching at fish
- after swimming through the school, it pursues individuals or groups for up to 5 meters
- it pursues fish in direct line without circling
Blue penguins have no teeth. In order to eat their food without chewing they swallow it whole with a few quick jerks of their head. The further they can open their jaw the greater the size of the fish they can take (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Behaviour
Feather maintenance is very important for Eudyptula penguins. They have 14 neck vertebrae allowing them to reach all parts of their body to rearrange their feathers. They also spread a secretion over their feathers with their feet and flippers, thus waterproofing themselves (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Predators
The white-flippered penguin is susceptible to many predators. Most notably these are ferrets (Mustela furo), stoats (Mustela erminea), dogs (Canis familians), cats (Felis catis) and three species of rats (Rattus sp.) (Taylor, 2000; Williamson, 2002). On Banks Peninsula the main predators to white-flippered penguins are ferrets and feral cats (Williamson, 2002). Ferrets tend to generally feed on small mammals. The increase of ferrets on Banks Peninsula has coincided with a decrease in white-flippered penguin numbers (Williamson, 2002). Feral cats are scavengers. It is not known whether they are actually killing white-flippered penguins on Banks Peninsula, or perhaps scavenging the leftovers of ferrets (or penguins which have died of natural causes) (Williamson, 2002). Lesser threats to white-flippered penguins are cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries) and cars.
Parasites
Penguins are susceptible to ectoparasites (parasites found on the outside of a host, e.g. on skin and feathers of the penguin). Ticks (Ixodes uriae) and fleas (Parapsyllus sp.) are found in the burrows of blue penguins (Stahel & Gales, 1987). Although the infestations caused by these parasites are not necessarily fatal they can affect penguin health. Ectoparasites can carry viruses which are passed on to the penguin (Stahel & Gales, 1987). Ticks can be harmful to penguin health when occurring in large numbers. In addition, ticks are especially dangerous when they become lodged in the ear thereby effecting coordination and balance (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
How to find the White-flippered penguin
The majority of white-flippered penguins are found on Motunanu Island where there are an estimated 1650 breeding pairs (Taylor, 2000). On Banks Peninsula there is estimated to be 550 pairs. The best time to see a white-flippered penguin is during the breeding season between August and Feburary. The Department of Conservation manages several sites where they are protected. These include Otanorito Bay, Akaroa Harbour and Quail Island (Williamson, 2002). To view a white-flippered penguin the best bet is to take a boat ride in Akaroa Harbour during the daylight hours. Penguin viewers must take into consideration that Eudyptula penguins are nocturnal and only come ashore during the night (Stahel & Gales, 1987).
Abundance and Conservation Status
- New Zealand: endangered
- Canterbury: endangered
The Department of Conservation has classified the white-flippered penguin as an endemic subspecies and has given it a ‘top priority’ conservation ranking (Taylor, 2000; Williamson, 2002). The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has placed the white-flippered penguin on its red-list and classified it as endangered (Taylor, 2000; Williamson, 2002).
In conjunction with the naturalisation of thirty two different exotic mammal species, the significant modification of preffered habitat has greatly reduced the white flippered penguin population (Williamson, 2002). In 1984 there was estimated to be five and ten thousand pairs of penguins. The current estimate is just over two thousand (Taylor, 2000). Population numbers have increased on Motunanu Island; however a decrease of 60-70% on Banks Peninsula occurred from 1980 to 1993 (Williamson, 2002).
Because penguins must come ashore to breed they are highly dependent on having unrestricted access to their nesting sites from the sea (Davis & Renner, 2003). Add to this flightlessness, predators, small population numbers and congregated colonies and it becomes clearly evident why the extinction of the white-flippered penguin is a serious issue (Davis & Renner, 2003).
Significance for people
Modern Uses
Although it is not easy for the general public to view the white-flippered penguin, it is still an important species; especially because it is the only subspecies of the genus.Eudyptula. The extinction of the white-flippered penguin would be a terrible loss for New Zealand.
Summary
The white-flippered penguin is endemic to Canterbury. They can be found on Motuanu Island and on Banks Peninsula. The white-flippered penguin is endangered and its numbers are decreasing. There are efforts being made to protect them; however this work is being undone by habitat modification and increasing predator numbers. Because white-flippered penguins are so rare, they can not be easily viewed by the public. However, ones best chances of viewing a white-flippered penguin in the wild would be during a boat trip in Akaroa Harbour.
References
Davis, L.S., (2001) The plight of the penguin. Longacre Press. Dunedin, New Zealand
Davis, L.S. and Renner, M., (2003) Penguins. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom
Gummer, H. (2003) Chick translocation as a method of establishing new surface-nesting seabird colonies. DOC Science Internal Series, 150, 26-27
Marchant, S. and Higgins, P.J. (1990) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Volume 1 Ratites to Ducks. Part A Ratites to Petrels. Oxford University Press. Melbourne, Australia
Reilly, P., (1994) Penguins of the world. Oxford University Press. South Melbourne, Australia
Stahel, C. and Gales, R., (1987) Little penguin: fairy penguins in Australia. New South Wales University Press. New South Wales, Australia
Taylor, G.A., (2000) Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand: Part A. Threatened Species Occasional Publication, 16: 69–71
Wass, J.R., (1995) Social stimulation and reproductive schedules: does the acoustic environment influence the egg-laying schedule in penguin colonies? In P. Dann, I. Norman and P. Reilly (Eds). The Penguins: Ecology and Management. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Limited, New South Wales, Australia
Watanuki, Y., Wanless, S., Harris, M., Lovvorn, J.R., Miyazaki, M., Tanaka, H., Sato, K. (2006). Swim speeds and stroke patterns in wing-propelled divers: A comparison among alcids and a penguin. Journal of Experimental Biology, 209(7): 1217–1230
Williamson, P., (2002) Evaluation of existing predator control programs for the benefit of the white-flippered penguin (Eudyptula minor albosignata), on Banks Peninsula, Canterbury, New Zealand. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Lincoln University, Canterbury
Web based resources
Search for Eudyptula minor in New Zealand science online
New Zealand Journal of Ecology articles containing Eudyptula minor.
Search NZ Royal Society journals for articles containing Eudyptula minor.
Notornis articles (from the Ornithological Society of New Zealand) containing Eudyptula minor.
